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Subject: rec.radio.amateur.misc Frequently Asked Questions (Part 3 of 3) Newsgroups: rec.radio.amateur.misc,rec.radio.info,rec.answers,news.answers From: ikluft@oes.amdahl.com (Ian Kluft) Date: Tue, 22 Nov 1994 06:12:31 GMT Posted-By: auto-faq 3.1.1.4 Archive-name: radio/ham-radio/faq/part3 Revision: 1.3 10/16/94 03:00:01 Rec.radio.amateur.misc Frequently Asked Questions Part 3 - Amateur Radio Advanced and Technical Questions ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Questions discussed in Part 3: (dates indicate last modification) ** What are the different US amateur classes and what can each of them do? (pre-4/92) ** What is the best way to learn Morse Code? (10/92) ** What is the standard for measuring Morse code speed? (pre-4/92) ** What is the standard phonetic alphabet? (10/94) ** I'm confused. What do all those abbreviations mean??? (6/93) ** What do all those "tones" mean? (pre-4/92) ** Where can I learn more about Amateur Radio if I live outside the US? (9/93) ** How can I get a "reciprocal license" if I am a licensed ham from another country or if I am a FCC licensed ham who wants to operate in another country (on vacation)? (9/93) ** My apartment or housing complex does not allow outdoor antennas, now what do I do? (9/93) ** I got TVI...HELP!!! (9/93) ** On what frequencies do JPL and GSFC retransmit the shuttle audio? (10/92) ** Can I take my HT on an airplane and operate it if I get the permission of the captain? (4/92) ** How do I modify my current Amateur license? (9/93) ** I'm confused about XXX, should I ask the FCC? (9/93) ** Is there any information on antique radios? (pre-4/92) ** Where can I buy vacuum tubes? (9/93) ** What do I need to get started in packet radio? (9/93) ** What do I need to get started in satellite communications? (9/93) ** What is available to get started in ATV, SSTV and WEFAX? (9/93) ** What are these contests I sometimes hear, and how do I participate? (9/93) --Rec.radio.amateur.misc Frequently-asked Questions------------------Part 3-- ** What are the different US amateur classes and what can each of them do? Novice - has CW (Morse code) privileges on 4 HF bands (80, 40, 15, and 10 meter), Voice privileges on 10 meters, and privileges on 2 VHF/UHF bands (220 MHz and 1290 MHz). Required are 5 wpm Morse code test and 30-question Novice test. Technician - has full privileges on all VHF/UHF bands above 30 MHz. Required are Novice test and 25-question Tech test. Technician may access Novice HF bands by passing the 5 wpm Morse code test. General - has all Technician privileges, plus larger access to more HF bands, including CW and Voice on 160, 80, 40, 30, 20, 17, 15, 12, and 10 meter bands. A General class amateur can give Novice tests. Required are 13 wpm Morse code test, Novice, Tech and 25-question General test. Advanced - has all General privileges, plus wider band access on 80, 40, 20, and 15 meter bands. An Advanced class amateur can also become a VE and give tests to Novice and Tech tests. Required are 13 wpm Morse code test, Novice, Tech, General and 50-question Advanced test. The Advanced test is the most difficult of the five written tests. Amateur Extra - has full privileges on all amateur bands. An Extra can become a VE and give all amateur tests. Required are 20 wpm Morse code test, Novice, Tech, General, Advanced and 40-question Extra test. ** What is the best way to learn Morse Code? This is becoming an increasingly common question as many "no-code" Technicians realize they can add more privileges to their license if they learn Morse Code. The following list of suggestions should be helpful in finding ways to approach the effort. * Listen to code at a rate faster than you can copy. * Participate in Novice-Roundup and/or Field Day. Practice whenever you get the chance! * Avoid the "deciphering" plateau around 5 WPM and and character plateau at 10 WPM by listening to the fast Farnsworth-paced "beat" of each letter and the "beat" of common words. (See the question on Morse code speed for more information on Farnsworth pacing.) * Practice to develop a "copy buffer" so you copy about 5 characters behind. (This is not easy but it's how the higher speeds are done.) * Practice both with headphones and "open-air" copy as the code test may be in either format. (If you only practice one, you may fumble on the other.) * Most of all, don't give up! Recognize when you reach plateaus and keep trying until you break through them. ** What is the standard for measuring Morse code speed? The word PARIS was chosen as the standard length for CW code speed. Each dit counts for one count, each dash counts for three counts, intra-character spacing is one count, inter-character spacing is three counts and inter-word spacing is seven counts, so the word PARIS is exactly 50 counts: PPPPPPPPPPPPP AAAAA RRRRRRRRR IIIII SSSSSSSSS . - - . . - . - . . . . . . 1 1 3 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 7 = 50 ^ ^ ^ ^Intra-character ^Inter-character Inter-word^ So 5 words-per-minute = 250 counts-per-minute / 50 counts-per-word or one count every 240 milliseconds. 13 words-per-minute is one count every ~92.3 milliseconds. This method of sending code is sometimes called "Slow Code", because at 5 wpm it sounds VERY SLOW. The "Farnsworth" method is accomplished by sending the dits and dashes and intra-character spacing at a higher speed, then increasing the inter-character and inter-word spacing to slow the sending speed down to the desired speed. For example, to send at 5 wpm with 13 wpm characters in Farnsworth method, the dits and intra-character spacing would be 92.3 milliseconds, the dash would be 276.9 milliseconds, the inter-character spacing would be 1.443 seconds and inter-word spacing would be 3.367 seconds. ** What is the standard phonetic alphabet? Though no standard phonetics are required on amateur radio, good operating procedures include using the standard phonetic alphabet to help communicate more clearly. The recommended phonetics are those also in use by aviation (internationally by ICAO treaty) and some militaries (in most English-speaking countries.) alfa bravo charlie delta echo foxtrot golf hotel india juliet kilo lima mike november oscar papa quebec romeo sierra tango uniform victor whiskey x-ray yankee zulu The numbers are spelled differently to suggest a particular pronunciation. Also, nine was changed to "niner" to avoid confusion with the German word "nein" for "no", though that change is not commonly used by Hams. (Usually you'll only hear "niner" from Hams who are also pilots.) zero one two tree fower fife six seven eight niner When first making contact with another Ham, it is a good idea to say callsigns in phonetics to give the other side a better chance of understanding them correctly. See also: http://aviation.jsc.nasa.gov/alphabet.html ** I'm confused. What do all those abbreviations mean??? AM Amplitude Modulation AMSAT Amateur Satellite Corporation [see rec.radio.amateur.space] AMTOR Amateur Teleprinter Over Radio. A more sophisticated version of RTTY. Also used commercially as SITOR (Simplex Teleprinter Over Radio). [see rec.radio.amateur.digital.misc] ARRL American Radio Relay League ATV Amateur Television - a way to see who you're talking to! CAP Civil Air Patrol is a volunteer organization that searches for downed aircraft and missing kids and uses frequencies just outside of the ham bands and often uses modified Amateur radios CB Citizen's Band radio, this is NOT part of Amateur Radio and does not require any license to operate [see rec.radio.cb] CQ An on-the-air request for a conversation with anyone "dupes" A dupe sheet is a duplicate check sheet, in matrix format, used to quickly check that you have not had a "duplicate" contact with someone (on a specific band or mode) in a contest Elmer An amateur radio mentor, or "Master Craftsman" to a new ham. Could refer to anyone, regardless of age or gender. FCC Federal Communications Commission, the "law enforcers" FM Frequency Modulation FieldDay A June activity to practice emergency communications for 24 hours....wives call it 'an exercise in male bonding' :-). HF High Frequency - 3 MHz to 30 MHz HT Handy-Talky, a shorthand for "hand held radio" LF Low Frequency - 30 kHz to 3 MHz MARS Military Affiliate Radio System, military affiliated Amateurs who provide free communications for overseas GIs and other Federal services. MARS operators are licensed under DoD instead of FCC. NTS National Traffic System, a way to send radiograms OF Old Friend, or Old F#$%, used to denote an older ham OM Old Man, refers to any ham, including female hams packet computer bulletin boards/electronic mail via Amateur Radio [see rec.radio.amateur.digital.misc] PRB Private Radio Bureau, administers Amateur and CB services QSO One of the Q signals used in Morse code to mean "conversation" QCWA Quarter Century Wireless Association, membership means you've been a ham for more than 25 years RTTY Radio Teletype - older form of computer communications on HF [see rec.radio.amateur.digital.misc] SAREX In Amateur Radio talk, Shuttle Amateur Radio EXperiment, a chance to talk to astronauts in space. In CAP talk, Search and Rescue EXercise, practicing for the real thing. [see rec.radio.amateur.space] SK Silent Key, a nice polite way to say a ham has passed on "to that great antenna farm in the sky" SSB Single Side Band - need less band width than AM or FM SSTV Slow Scan TeleVision - REALLY slow, low data rate, typically used on the lower frequency bands SWL shortwave listening [see rec.radio.shortwave] UHF Ultra High Frequency - 300 MHz and above ULF Ultra Low Frequency - 30 Hz to 300 Hz VHF Very High Frequency - 30 MHz to 300 MHz VLF Very Low Frequency - 300 Hz to 30 kHz, audio frequencies WARC World Administrative Radio Conference, a summit meeting that occurs every few years, required by international treaty to determine how the spectrum get sliced up to all vying communications services (last one was in 1992) XYL eX-Young Lady, or wife YL Young Lady, non-ham girlfriend or female ham 2m Shorthand for "2 meters" (144-147.995 MHz), which is a reference to the wavelength of a common Amateur frequency band used for local communications ** What do all those "tones" mean? Sub-Audible Tone: A low tone that you're not supposed to be able to hear. It's used as a "PL Tone." PL is "Private Line", a trademark of Motorola for their implementation of CTCSS (Continuous Tone Coded Squelch System). Basically, the transmitter sends the signal with the Sub-Audible tone and the receiver only opens when it hears signals with that tone. Signals without the proper tone are ignored. This is useful for "closed" repeaters, or for repeaters on the same frequency that have overlapping geographic areas. Tone encode refers to the feature of providing the tone on transmit. Tone decode refers to the feature of responding to the tone on receive. Tone squelch refers to all of the above. DTMF refers to Dual Tone Multi-Frequency, or "Touch Tone" which is a trademark of AT&T. DTSS probably means Dual Tone Squelch System and refers to the feature of providing a predefined sequence of Touch Tone digits to open the repeater for transmit. DTSS is an alternate method from CTCSS, which provides a way to use a "closed" repeater even if your radio doesn't do Sub-Audible Tones. ** Where can I learn more about Amateur Radio if I live outside the US? First, check if there is a Ham Radio-related newsgroup specific to your country. See the country-specific newsgroups in "the rec.radio.* newsgroups" in Part II of this FAQ. Also, write to the ARRL and ask. They can usually tell you how to get a license in your country. See also the ARRL e-mail server. (Details are in Part 2.) If you know of any location where this information is available electronically, whether by an e-mail server, anonymous FTP, or a contact person, please mail it to us so we can include it here. Send it to hamradio-faq@amdahl.com. ** How can I get a "reciprocal license" if I am a licensed ham from another country or if I am a FCC licensed ham who wants to operate in another country (on vacation)? Editor's note (11/92): the regulations affecting this question are being changed. Contact your local Volunteer Examiner (VE) and ask about a VE 60-day pass. More details will be included in future revisions of the FAQ. This paragraph is soon to be obsolete: You need to submit a FCC Form 610-A to the FCC, PO Box 1020, Gettysburg, PA 17326. They will then send you a reciprocal permit for alien amateur licensee (FCC Form 610-AL). You must be a citizen of a country with which the United States has arrangements to grant reciprocal operating permits to visiting alien Amateur operators. This information is still current: For FCC licensed hams operating abroad, the following guidelines apply: * A reciprocal license is required in all foreign countries (that have a reciprocal operating agreement with the US), except Canada, where the FCC license is automatically valid. * Send a SASE to ARRL Regulatory Information Branch, telling them which country you are going to visit and they will send you the info and an application form. Foreign hams can likewise request information from their national Amateur radio society. * Submit your application with a certified copy of your Amateur license (ie, notarized copy), and fee if applicable (use a bank draft of a bank that does business in that country) to the appropriate licensing administration of the foreign country. Processing may take 30 to 90 days. * If less than one month, you could try sending the application and pick up the permit upon arrival in that country. * Most countries will not allow you to bring communications equipment into their country without a license or permit. If you applied, but haven't received the permit yet, show the copy and your FCC license to the customs officer, however, the equipment may still be held at customs until your departure. * Be sure to use only those frequencies covered by your FCC license which are also used in the foreign country, unless otherwise authorized. See also the file RECIP-OP on the ARRL e-mail server. (See Part 2.) ** My apartment or housing complex does not allow outdoor antennas, now what do I do? [see also rec.radio.amateur.antenna] First of all, don't despair. Many hams have similar problems. Many books offer advice for the growing group of hams that cannot put up antennas. Some options are: * Install an "invisible" antenna made of magnet wire. * Disguise an antenna as a flag pole. * Install an antenna in the attic. * ASK the apartment manager. You may find they will let you put up something as long as it "is invisible" or "doesn't disturb your neighbors" or "doesn't attract lightning". * Operate primarily from your car. * If the restriction is due to local ordinance, you may have relief via PRB-1. Meet with the local government and seek an informal compromise. It is possible to win in court...but it's expensive and time consuming. * If you are restricted by "covenants" attached to the deed of your home, your options are severely limited. Covenants are considered to be private, voluntary contracts between individuals and are outside of the intended application of PRB-1. In many cases, you can petition the Homeowner's Association for an exception. Sometimes you can win in court on the basis that other violations of the covenants by others without action taken constitutes abandonment of the agreement. * For further information, contact the General Consel's office of the ARRL, 225 Main St, Newington, CT 06111. See also the file ANTS-INDOOR on the ARRL e-mail server. ** I got TVI...HELP!!! Here's some hints on Television interference, but this is not a complete list. There are also books on the subject available from ARRL. * If cable TV is an underground feed, look for central distribution box. Check for a grounding rod. * Try installing torroids on the cable TV cable close to the TV, and maybe torroids on the AC cord as well. * VCRs are notorious for RF leakers, try disconnecting the VCR. * Check to see if interference is better or worse when cable is disconnected and you use rabbit ears instead. It could be the cable company's problem! * Calling the cable company may get results, since they are also responsible for RF leakage from their equipment. However, they are very often obstinate. Good luck! Try some or all of these suggestions before calling the cable company: 1. Log the interference, noting geographical location, frequency, and characteristics. 2. Bring it to the cable company's attention in writing, preferably addressed to "Chief Engineer", or "Technical Staff". 3. Don't be accusatory, instead ask for assistance in resolving the problem. Try to work it out with someone technically knowledgeable. 4. Do mention your "licensed radio system", but try not to be too specific about "ham" or "CB" unless requested. * Try moving the radio antenna further away from the TV sets. Make sure the SWR is LOW. See also the series of files on the ARRL e-mail server on various aspects of electromagnetic interference. The filenames start with "EMI-" like EMI-CATVI (cable TV), EMI-GEN (general notes on EMI), EMI-AUDIO (interference to audio devices), etc. ** On what frequencies do JPL and GSFC retransmit the shuttle audio? [see also rec.radio.amateur.space] Station VHF 10m 15m 20m 40m 80m Video WA3NAN 147.45 28.650 21.395 14.295 7.185 3.860 W6VIO 224.04 21.280 14.282 7.165 K6MF 145.585 7.165 3.840 W5RRR 146.64 28.495 21.350 14.280 7.227 3.850 W6FXN (temporarily out of service - looking for new frequency) KA9SZX 146.88 426.25 K4GCC 146.94 WA4VME 145.17 W6TRW 145.32 All frequencies are in MHz. Use FM on VHF, USB on 10-20m, LSB on 40-80m. WA3NAN - NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), Greenbelt, MD W6VIO - NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Pasadena, CA K6MF - NASA Ames Research Center (ARC), Moffett Field, CA W5RRR - NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, TX W6FXN - Los Angeles, CA KA9SZX - Champaign-Urbana, IL K4GCC - Titusville, FL (near or at Kennedy Space Center) WA4VME - Melbourne, FL (near or at Kennedy Space Center) W6TRW - TRW ARC, Redondo Beach, CA (shuttle audio may be overridden by repeater usage) ** Can I take my HT on an airplane and operate it if I get the permission of the captain? Technically, maybe. But don't count on it. In general, you can't use a radio or scanner on an airline (or charter) *unless* the airline allows it and the pilot-in-command (PIC) determines that it will not interfere with the instruments and radios on that specific aircraft. Very few US airlines allow passengers to use radios so be ready to disconnect the antenna when you ask. (Don't even ask to transmit.) For reference (in the US) the pertinent portion of the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) is Part 91, paragraph 91.21. Due to airport security, you may have a little difficulty carrying the HT (or any electronic equipment) onto the airplane. Generally, you can appease the security guards, simply by showing that the unit is operational and doesn't have a bomb inside. For a radio, just turning it on and opening the squelch satisfies them. Expect more difficulty during periods of increased security. On a private airplane, it is legal to operate an amateur radio if you have the permission of the PIC. It is still possible for the radio to interfere with the plane's navigation or communication equipment, so be sure to ask first. Always obey the requests of the PIC. He knows his airplane and radios better than you do. ** How do I modify my current Amateur license? To modify your license (change of address, change of station location, change of name, renewal, or even change of callsign), submit an FCC Form 610 to the FCC. Forms are available from the FCC or ARRL or a local VE session or ham radio store. Do NOT use a photocopy. Check off the appropriate boxes, fill in the new/changed information, SIGN THE FORM, and attach a copy of your current license (or a brief letter of explanation for its absence, ie, "my dog ate it"). NOTE: If you check the box to change your callsign, YOU WILL GET A NEW CALLSIGN, even if all you wanted was to supply a new address; if you want to keep your callsign, DON'T CHECK THAT BOX. Send the form to FCC, POB 1020, Gettysburg, PA 17326. Turnaround time (for CURRENT licensees only) is about 2-4 weeks. ANY ham can apply for a new callsign (this is different from the past where you can only get a new callsign if you move or upgrade). You can't specify WHICH ONE you want, a new one comes from the same pool as new licensees for that class of license. The callsign is based on your mailing address. For overseas military and civilians, be sure to specify a station location that is within FCC jurisdiction. New licenses are for 10-year terms. If you apply for renewal before its expiration date, the expired license is valid for 60 days after expiration to allow for the new license to arrive. You have up to 2 years after expiration (5 years for an old 5-year license) to renew before re-examination is required (but you can't operate with an expired license). You will lose your current callsign after 1 year after expiration if you don't renew. For more information on FCC Form 610, see the file FCC-610-INFO on the ARRL e-mail server. (See Part 2 for details.) ** I'm confused about XXX, should I ask the FCC? [see also rec.radio.amateur.policy] Whatever "XXX" is in this case, the overwhelming ARRL and net opinion is a resounding "NO!", at least not as a first step. Amateurs are generally very law-abiding people and have historically written the FCC asking for clarification on some operating practice or another. This is a very dangerous practice, for several reasons. Most amateur radio regulations (contained in Part 97) are generally very loosely-worded, so as not to restrict experimentation and new techniques. But asking the FCC for a clarification will set in motion the process of "clarifying" it for everyone (i.e. new rulemaking.) Examples of such restrictive rulings include varying topics like when Hams can help non-profit agencies or effectively forcing packet BBS sysops to screen messages before forwarding them. They were the result of well-intentioned questions by Hams that forced the FCC to make a ruling where they previously allowed the amateur radio community to police itself. Under all circumstances, it is better to first read the rules yourself. Then, if there's a problem, ask your national amateur radio organiza- tion (such as the ARRL in the US) which can give qualified advice about interpretation of FCC regulations. Organizations like the ARRL also have the influence to ask the FCC informally, without forcing a ruling. Even if asking the FCC doesn't result in a restrictive ruling, it is generally a good idea to not overburden an under-staffed and under- funded government agency with a lot of correspondence. The Amateur Radio Service has traditionally been a low-workload "hands-off" service, and has enjoyed a wide latitude from the FCC. Please don't ruin this image for your fellow amateurs. For more discussion on how and when to contact the FCC, see the file FCC-CONTACTING on the ARRL e-mail server. (See Part 2 for details.) ** Is there any information on antique radios? Antique radio classifieds: ARC, PO Box 802-B6, Carlisle, MA 01741 - old radios, TVs, ham equipment, 40s and 50s radios, telegraph, books, etc. Hallicrafter Service manuals: Ardco Electronics, PO Box 95, Dept Q, Berwyn, IL 60402 Antique Wireless Association, Bruce Kelley, W2ICE, Route 3, Holcomb, NY 14469 - sponsors the Wireless Museum ** Where can I buy vacuum tubes? Kirby, 298 West Carmel Drive, Carmel, IN 46032 (1-317-843-2212) Antique Electronic Supply, Box 1810, Tempe, AZ 85281 (1-602-894-9503) Fair Radio Sales, Box 1105, Lima OH 45802 Fala Electronics, Box 1376-1 Milwaukee, WI 53201 Southern Radio Supply, 1909 Tulane Ave, New Orleans, LA 70112 (10504-524-2343) See also the file VACUUM-TUBES on the ARRL e-mail server. (See Part 2) ** What do I need to get started in packet radio? [see also rec.radio.amateur.digital.misc] Packet radio is a digital form of communication using radios. There are OTHER digital forms, as well, like CW, RTTY and AMTOR. To use packet radio, you'll need a radio (2 meters and 70 centimeters are most popular), a box that converts radio signals to digital signals that a computer can understand (called a TNC or terminal node control- ler) and a computer or terminal. For some computers or TNCs you may need special software as well. However, most TNCs and computers get along quite well with just a terminal emulator software package. Most personal computers can be interfaced to use with packet radio. Since there are many digipeaters, generally even an HT will work with packet radio. Your first source of information on Packet Radio should be the rec.radio.amateur.digital.misc newsgroup. It has its own regularly- posted FAQ that goes into much more depth on the subject than this one can. See also the mailing list and archives info in Part 2. For more information on packet radio, you might try TAPR (Tucson Amateur Packet Radio), PO Box 12925, Tucson, AZ 85732 (602-749-9479). See also the files PACKET-INTRO, PACKET-NEW, and PACKET-GLOSSARY on the ARRL e-mail server or the directory /hamradio/packet on the KA6ETB e-mail HAM-server. (See Part 2.) ** What do I need to get started in satellite communications? [see also rec.radio.amateur.space] For more information about Amateur Satellite Communications, try AMSAT (Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation), PO Box 27, Washington, DC 20044 (301-589-6062). They also have an international net on Sundays on 14.282 MHz at 1900Z. ARRL publishes a book on this subject: The Satellite Experimenter's Handbook. Ham Radio stores in your area may either have it or be able to order it. Or you can order it direct from ARRL. See also the contents of the directory /hamradio/satelite on the KA6ETB e-mail HAM-server. The ARRL e-mail server has a bibliography on satellite materials in the file SATELLITES-B. ** What is available to get started in ATV, SSTV and WEFAX? This is a large subject area in itself. Amateur Television (ATV), Slow-scan TV (SSTV), and Weather FAX (WEFAX) all deal with transmitted pictures. (ATV includes moving pictures and audio just like your household TV.) Equipment is available to interface to most common microcomputers including PC clones, Amigas (which are prominent in most video applications anyway), Atari ST, and others. (At last check, we didn't see Macintosh on the list.) There are also a handful of publications on the subject. All this information is available via FTP in the /pub/ham-radio directory at ftp.cs.buffalo.edu. (See Part 2 for more information on FTP.) The file called sstv_wefax_info is maintained by John Langner WB2OSZ (johnl@avs.com). The ARRL e-mail server contains an introduction to SSTV in the file SSTV-INFO. (See Part 2 for more information on the ARRL e-mail server.) There is a bibliography of ATV articles from QST in the file TV-B. (See Part 2 for details.) The KA6ETB e-mail HAM-server has files on SSTV and WEFAX in the directory /hamradio/sstvfax. Another resource is the regularly-posted UseNet Elmers Directory. The list contains a volunteer Elmer who can help with ATV, SSTV, and WEFAX questions. ** What are these contests I sometimes hear, and how do I participate? Dozens of contests are held each year, usually at weekends, and can provide useful operating experience. They typically last for 24 or 48 hrs, and are usually on SSB or CW only (the Russian CQ-Mir contest is on both modes at the same time). You can participate by making one QSO or several thousands. In most contests you send a signal report (traditionally 59 or 599) followed by a number that is different for different contests - the most common one is a serial number (so you send 599 001 for your first QSO, then 599 002 etc). The exchange may, however, be your age (All Asian contests), your CQ or ITU zone (CQWW and IARU contests, respectively), your state (ARRL contests) or something else. Read "Contest Corral" in QST for the rules for all major contests - the more serious contester may wish to subscribe to the National Contest Journal, or join the e-mail contest mailing group (write to Trey, WN4KKN, at garlough@tgv.com). Knowing the rules can prevent embarrassment - you will get a cool reception if you are a W or VE and call a W/VE in the ARRL contests, since they can only work non-W/VE stations. Otherwise, QSOs made in contests are just as valid for DXCC (DX Century Club - more than 100 contacts), WAS (worked all states) and other awards as are 30-minute ragchews. Although not strictly a contest, the annual Field Day provides very useful operating experience under less than optimal conditions and is highly recommended for new operators - check with your local club for their Field Day plans some weeks before the (late June) event. For more information on contests, the ARRL e-mail server has the following files: CONTESTS-93 (as of this writing, substitute current year), CONTEST-LOGS (for contest log formats), FORM-10M (10m contest entry form), FORM-VHF (VHF contest entry form), and others.